80属什么
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Irk, toplum taraf?ndan genellikle farkl? g?rülen biyolojik, fiziksel ve sosyal niteliklere g?re insanlar?n grupland?r?lmas?d?r.[1] Terim ?ncelikle ortak bir dil konu?anlar? ve sonras?nda belirli milliyetten insanlar? anlatmak i?in kullan?lm??t?r. On yedinci yüzy?l itibar?yla bu terim fiziksel (fenotipik) ?zellikleri i?aret etmek i?in kullan?lmaya ba?lanm??t?r. Modern bilim ?rk terimini sosyal bir in?a olarak g?rmektedir. Sosyal in?a bireyin toplum taraf?ndan koyulmu? kurallara dayanan kimli?idir. Her ne kadar k?smen gruplar aras?ndaki fiziksel benzerliklere ba?l? olsa da ?rk terimi fiziksel ya da biyolojik bir anlam ta??mamaktad?r.[1][2]
Sosyal konseptler ve ?rklar?n grupland?r?lmas? zaman i?erisinde ?e?itlilik g?stermi?tir. Bu grupland?rmalardan biri olan halk s?n?fland?rmas? veya halk taksonomisi[3][4] bireylerin g?zlenen ?zelliklerine g?re ba?l?ca tipler halinde s?n?fland?r?lmas?d?r. Bilim insanlar? biyolojik ?zcülü?ü art?k kullanmamakta[5] ve fiziksel ve davran??sal ?zelliklere dayanarak insanlar?n toplu ?ekilde farkl? gruplara ayr?lmas? ile yap?lan ?rk tan?mlamalar?n? genellikle desteklememektedir.[6][7][8][9][10]
Her ne kadar ?rk teriminin ?zcü ve topolojik olarak kavramsalla?t?r?lmas?n?n savunulmaz oldu?u konusunda bilimsel g?rü? birli?i olsa da dünyan?n her yan?ndan bilim insanlar? ?rk? farkl? ?ekillerde kavramsalla?t?rmaktad?r ki bu g?rü?lerin baz?lar?nda ?zcü ??kar?mlar da bulunmaktad?r.[11] Kimi bilim insanlar? ?rk kavram?n? davran??taki g?zlenebilir farklar? veya ?zellikleri i?eren bulan?k kümede ayr?mlar yapmak i?in kullan?rken kimileri ?rk fikrinin saf[6] veya basit[12] bir anlamda kullan?ld???n? ?ne sürmekte ve tüm ya?ayan insanlar?n ayn? türe, Homo sapiens'e, ait oldu?unu i?aret ederek insanlar aras?nda ?rk?n herhangi bir taksonomik ?neminin olmad???n? savunmaktad?r.[13][14]
Yirminci yüzy?l?n ikinci yar?s?ndan sonra bilimsel ?rk??l??a ait teoriler ve ideolojilerin ?rk kavram? ile ili?kilendirilmesi ?rk?n bilimsel olmayan bir s?n?fland?rma sistemi olarak g?rülmesine yol a?t?. Hala genel ba?lamlarda kullan?lsa da ?rk kelimesi yerine ba?lama ba?l? olarak nüfus, insanlar, etnik grup veya topluluk gibi daha belirsiz ve hafif anlama sahip kelimeler se?ilir.[15][16]
?nsan popülasyonlar? aras?ndaki ortalama genetik Fst uzakl??? yakla??k olarak 0.125'tir. Lewontin (1972), bunun kü?ük bir ?rksal fark? temsil etti?ini savundu.[17] ?te yandan, Harpending (2002), b?yle bir uzakl???n, rastgele e?le?en bir popülasyondaki yar?-karde?ler aras?ndaki akrabal?kla e?de?er oldu?unu ve belirli bir popülasyonun bir bireyinin, karma ?rktan yar?-karde?ine g?re ayn? popülasyondaki bir yabanc? bireye genetik olarak daha yak?n oldu?unu iddia etti.[18]
Kaynak?a
[de?i?tir | kayna?? de?i?tir]- ^ a b Barnshaw, John (2008). "Race". Schaefer, Richard T. (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, Volume 1. SAGE Publications. ss. 1091-3. ISBN 978-1-45-226586-5.
- ^ Smedley, Audrey; Takezawa, Yasuko I.; Wade, Peter. "Race: Human". Encyclop?dia Britannica. Encyclop?dia Britannica Inc. 25 Ekim 2019 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi. Eri?im tarihi: 22 A?ustos 2017.
- ^ Montagu, Ashley (1962). "The Concept of Race". American Ethnography Quasimonthly. 2 Aral?k 2010 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi26 Ocak 2009.
- ^ Bamshad, Michael; Olson, Steve E (10 Kas?m 2003). "Does Race Exist?" (PDF). Scientific American. 289 (6): 78-85. Bibcode:2003SciAm.289f..78B. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1203-78. PMID 14631734. 14 Haziran 2007 tarihinde kayna??ndan (PDF) ar?ivlendi12 Haziran 2020.
- ^ Sober, Elliott (2000). Philosophy of biology (2.2yer=Boulder, CO bas.). Westview Press. ISBN 978-0813391267.
- ^ a b Lee et al. 2008: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores"
- ^ AAA 1998: "For example, 'Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them.'"
- ^ Keita, S O Y; Kittles, R A; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004). "Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics. 36 (11s): S17-S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998.
Modern human biological variation is not structured into phylogenetic subspecies ('races'), nor are the taxa of the standard anthropological 'racial' classifications breeding populations. The 'racial taxa' do not meet the phylogenetic criteria. 'Race' denotes socially constructed units as a function of the incorrect usage of the term.
- ^ Harrison, Guy (2010). Race and Reality. Amherst: Prometheus Books.
Race is a poor empirical description of the patterns of difference that we encounter within our species. The billions of humans alive today simply do not fit into neat and tidy biological boxes called races. Science has proven this conclusively. The concept of race (...) is not scientific and goes against what is known about our ever-changing and complex biological diversity.
- ^ Roberts, Dorothy (2011). Fatal Invention. London, New York: The New Press.
The genetic differences that exist among populations are characterized by gradual changes across geographic regions, not sharp, categorical distinctions. Groups of people across the globe have varying frequencies of polymorphic genes, which are genes with any of several differing nucleotide sequences. There is no such thing as a set of genes that belongs exclusively to one group and not to another. The clinal, gradually changing nature of geographic genetic difference is complicated further by the migration and mixing that human groups have engaged in since prehistory. Human beings do not fit the zoological definition of race. A mountain of evidence assembled by historians, anthropologists, and biologists proves that race is not and cannot be a natural division of human beings.
- ^ Lieberman, L.; Kaszycka, K. A.; Martinez Fuentes, A. J.; Yablonsky, L.; Kirk, R. C.; Strkalj, G.; Wang, Q.; Sun, L. (Aral?k 2004). "The race concept in six regions: variation without consensus". Coll Antropol. 28 (2): 907-21. PMID 15666627. 4 May?s 2020 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi12 Haziran 2020.
- ^ Graves 2001[sayfa belirt]
- ^ Keita et al. 2004
- ^ AAPA 1996 "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past." p. 714
- ^ "Race2". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 11 Temmuz 2012 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi. Eri?im tarihi: 5 Ekim 2012.
1. Each of the major division of humankind, having distinct physical characteristics [example elided]. 1.1. mass noun The fact or condition of belonging to a racial division or group; the qualities or characteristics associated with this. 1.2. A group of people sharing the same culture, history, language, etc.; an ethnic group [example elided].
Provides 8 definitions, from biological to literary; only the most pertinent have been quoted. - ^ Keita, S O Y; Kittles, R A; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004). "Conceptualizing human variation". Nature Genetics. 36 (11s): S17-S20. doi:10.1038/ng1455. PMID 15507998.
Many terms requiring definition for use describe demographic population groups better than the term 'race' because they invite examination of the criteria for classification.
- ^ Lewontin, R. C. (4 Nis 1972). Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (Ed.). Evolutionary Biology: Volume 6. Springer US. ss. 381-398. doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-9063-3_14. 19 A?ustos 2020 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi. Eri?im tarihi: 4 Nisan 2024 – Springer Link vas?tas?yla.
- ^ Harpending, Henry (2002). "Kinship and Population Subdivision". Population and Environment. 24 (2). ss. 141-147. 13 Haziran 2023 tarihinde kayna??ndan ar?ivlendi4 Nisan 2024 – JSTOR vas?tas?yla.
